Diplomacy Evolves As A New Vocation
Yuba Nath Lamsal
Diplomacy is said to be the second oldest profession, which has been in practice since ancient times. With the birth of human civilisation, more particularly urban civilisation, followed by the formation of the city state in ancient Mesopotamia, diplomacy has been a part of statecraft to indulge nations in communication. But the nature and scope of diplomacy have undergone a sea change over the years.
Originally diplomats used to be sent only for negotiation on specific topics and would return home after accomplishing the mission. The Mahabharat epic states that Lord Krishna went to the court of Dhritarastra or Kauravas as a peace envoy of the Pandavas to prevent a possible war between cousins, implying that diplomatic practice as a peace mission prevailed in South Asia even in the prehistoric period. Kautilya’s Arthasastra (economic theory) and Nitisastra (statecraft theory) advocate the realist theory of foreign policy and diplomacy, providing a basic outline for the conduct of foreign policy and diplomacy in present South Asia.
History
Diplomacy was in existence even during the Biblical period. The Old Testament mentions that Israel once sent messengers to Sihon King of the Amorites (Egypt) asking for permission to pass through Egyptian territory saying, “We will not turn into the fields or into the vineyards; we will not drink the waters of the well: but we will go along by the King’s highway, until we be past thy borders”. This was evident of the practice of diplomacy between the states in the prehistoric period in both the eastern and western world.
But nowhere in the world had there been the practice of establishing a permanent diplomatic mission and deploying diplomats on a permanent basis until the 19th century, except in the case between the Byzantine Empire (Turkey) and the Papal State. Under the arrangement between the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Sea, the Papal State had Apostolic Nunciature in Constantinople (Istanbul) as its permanent diplomatic representative. But the protracted disputes and animosity between the Byzantine ruler and the Pope led to the breakdown of this tradition.
The tradition of establishing diplomatic missions and deploying diplomatic agents in other countries on a permanent basis started in the early Renaissance period. Francesco Sforza, the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan of Italy, first established permanent embassies in the neighbouring city states in the 13th century. With this, several traditions of modern diplomacy, including that of presenting credentials to the head of state by ambassadors, also started.
This practice later spread from Italy to other European powers. As stated on www.ediplomacy.com, Milan established diplomatic missions in other European countries, including France, but it, in the beginning, refused to host French representatives on a reciprocal basis fearing espionage and intervention in its internal affairs. However, the Italian states, including Milan, later, agreed to host ambassadors of the European powers, paving the way for full diplomatic exchanges. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became the standard of diplomacy in the world, and nations began developing uniformed codes and rules as well as amenities and privileges for the diplomats. According to John M. Mun-Ranking and Moshe Weinfeld, codes of international conduct were established in Western Asia throughout the second and first millennia B.C. and prepared a foundation for the diplomacy of future civilisation.
The Peace of Westphalia, a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Germany ending the ‘Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) and the ‘Eighty Years’ War’ (1568–1648) in Europe, was another historic marker in the world of diplomacy. The peace negotiations involved 109 delegations representing European powers of that time. It not only restored peace in Europe but also created a basis for national self-determination, establishing a norm against interference in another state’s domestic affairs. As European influence spread across the globe, the Westphalian principles became central to international law and the world order.
After the Peace of Westphalia, diplomacy slowly evolved in Europe, West and South Asia. Around the same time, the French Revolution took place, which proved to be a landmark in world history, changing the shape and form of politics, social and intellectual faculties as well as practices of international relations and diplomacy particularly in Europe. As Jean–Robert Leguey-Feilleux says, while Italian Renaissance developed many of the practices that underlie the modern system in diplomacy, the French reforms set a totally different tone based on the conviction that diplomacy required the creation of confidence in which knowledge and experience were given more importance. Until then, diplomacy was the sole privilege of the nobles, knights, elites and aristocrats. The French Revolution broke this tradition and brought the game of governance to the hands of the people. In post-revolution France, the commoners took over the diplomacy of the French state and, accordingly, the ranks of precedence were abolished.
Napoleon, who declared himself as the Emperor of France in 1799, and boasted that he gained the ‘Crown of France with the power of the sword’, also brought about a seeming impact on politics, governance and diplomacy in Europe. This period marked an era of rule-breaking in diplomacy as Napoleon had ‘no patience for the slow-moving process of formal diplomacy, thus, refusing to acknowledge diplomatic rules, precedence and immunity, which had until then become almost universal rules’. However, post-Napoleon France and Europe saw the return of the rules.
The Congress of Vienna, held from November 1814 to June 1815, in which representatives of European states gathered to hammer out a peace deal following a protracted war in Europe, set the rules of the game in international relations and diplomacy in the form of a set of treaties called ‘The Final Act’.
The 19th century saw a flurry of diplomatic initiatives in Europe in which Britain and France took the central stage. They contributed to the development of diplomacy in the world. Until 1815, Britain had 14 resident diplomatic missions abroad. The 19th century also saw many diplomatic conferences in Europe that set new principles and standards of diplomacy, some of which are still in practice.
Expansion
Until then, the United States was not visible in the scene of international power politics. But the US had its diplomatic presence in different countries and was slowly enlarging its diplomatic presence. Around the same time, Japan in Asia and Brazil in South America were diplomatically active. By the 1870s, Japan sent its missions abroad while China refused to take part in the new diplomacy until it was militarily compelled to accept representatives in Peking from Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Prussia and Japan, although Chinese diplomatic tradition had a long history dating back to the dawn of civilisation. By the end of the 19th century, international diplomacy had become mature and had expanded all over the world.
International diplomacy witnessed a new and innovative approach in the 20th century. However, the first half of the 20th century saw the breakdown of international diplomacy that gave rise to two devastating world wars causing untold miseries in human civilisation. World War I began in 1914 and ended in 1919 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The war brought about a key change in the perception of the rulers as both victors and vanquished alike realised the need to devise a permanent mechanism to avoid future wars and settle all disputes peacefully through the use of diplomacy. This led to the creation of the League of Nations in 1919. But the League of Nations failed to prevent another war, and the world witnessed the outbreak of World War II (1939-1945). The devastation caused by the war gave another step towards more effective diplomacy in the international arena to avoid another World War. This realisation gave birth to the United Nations (UN), giving a new momentum to international diplomacy.
Diplomacy is said to be the second oldest profession, which has been in practice since ancient times. With the birth of human civilisation, more particularly urban civilisation, followed by the formation of the city state in ancient Mesopotamia, diplomacy has been a part of statecraft to indulge nations in communication. But the nature and scope of diplomacy have undergone a sea change over the years.
Originally diplomats used to be sent only for negotiation on specific topics and would return home after accomplishing the mission. The Mahabharat epic states that Lord Krishna went to the court of Dhritarastra or Kauravas as a peace envoy of the Pandavas to prevent a possible war between cousins, implying that diplomatic practice as a peace mission prevailed in South Asia even in the prehistoric period. Kautilya’s Arthasastra (economic theory) and Nitisastra (statecraft theory) advocate the realist theory of foreign policy and diplomacy, providing a basic outline for the conduct of foreign policy and diplomacy in present South Asia.
History
Diplomacy was in existence even during the Biblical period. The Old Testament mentions that Israel once sent messengers to Sihon King of the Amorites (Egypt) asking for permission to pass through Egyptian territory saying, “We will not turn into the fields or into the vineyards; we will not drink the waters of the well: but we will go along by the King’s highway, until we be past thy borders”. This was evident of the practice of diplomacy between the states in the prehistoric period in both the eastern and western world.
But nowhere in the world had there been the practice of establishing a permanent diplomatic mission and deploying diplomats on a permanent basis until the 19th century, except in the case between the Byzantine Empire (Turkey) and the Papal State. Under the arrangement between the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Sea, the Papal State had Apostolic Nunciature in Constantinople (Istanbul) as its permanent diplomatic representative. But the protracted disputes and animosity between the Byzantine ruler and the Pope led to the breakdown of this tradition.
The tradition of establishing diplomatic missions and deploying diplomatic agents in other countries on a permanent basis started in the early Renaissance period. Francesco Sforza, the founder of the Sforza dynasty in Milan of Italy, first established permanent embassies in the neighbouring city states in the 13th century. With this, several traditions of modern diplomacy, including that of presenting credentials to the head of state by ambassadors, also started.
This practice later spread from Italy to other European powers. As stated on www.ediplomacy.com, Milan established diplomatic missions in other European countries, including France, but it, in the beginning, refused to host French representatives on a reciprocal basis fearing espionage and intervention in its internal affairs. However, the Italian states, including Milan, later, agreed to host ambassadors of the European powers, paving the way for full diplomatic exchanges. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became the standard of diplomacy in the world, and nations began developing uniformed codes and rules as well as amenities and privileges for the diplomats. According to John M. Mun-Ranking and Moshe Weinfeld, codes of international conduct were established in Western Asia throughout the second and first millennia B.C. and prepared a foundation for the diplomacy of future civilisation.
The Peace of Westphalia, a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Germany ending the ‘Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) and the ‘Eighty Years’ War’ (1568–1648) in Europe, was another historic marker in the world of diplomacy. The peace negotiations involved 109 delegations representing European powers of that time. It not only restored peace in Europe but also created a basis for national self-determination, establishing a norm against interference in another state’s domestic affairs. As European influence spread across the globe, the Westphalian principles became central to international law and the world order.
After the Peace of Westphalia, diplomacy slowly evolved in Europe, West and South Asia. Around the same time, the French Revolution took place, which proved to be a landmark in world history, changing the shape and form of politics, social and intellectual faculties as well as practices of international relations and diplomacy particularly in Europe. As Jean–Robert Leguey-Feilleux says, while Italian Renaissance developed many of the practices that underlie the modern system in diplomacy, the French reforms set a totally different tone based on the conviction that diplomacy required the creation of confidence in which knowledge and experience were given more importance. Until then, diplomacy was the sole privilege of the nobles, knights, elites and aristocrats. The French Revolution broke this tradition and brought the game of governance to the hands of the people. In post-revolution France, the commoners took over the diplomacy of the French state and, accordingly, the ranks of precedence were abolished.
Napoleon, who declared himself as the Emperor of France in 1799, and boasted that he gained the ‘Crown of France with the power of the sword’, also brought about a seeming impact on politics, governance and diplomacy in Europe. This period marked an era of rule-breaking in diplomacy as Napoleon had ‘no patience for the slow-moving process of formal diplomacy, thus, refusing to acknowledge diplomatic rules, precedence and immunity, which had until then become almost universal rules’. However, post-Napoleon France and Europe saw the return of the rules.
The Congress of Vienna, held from November 1814 to June 1815, in which representatives of European states gathered to hammer out a peace deal following a protracted war in Europe, set the rules of the game in international relations and diplomacy in the form of a set of treaties called ‘The Final Act’.
The 19th century saw a flurry of diplomatic initiatives in Europe in which Britain and France took the central stage. They contributed to the development of diplomacy in the world. Until 1815, Britain had 14 resident diplomatic missions abroad. The 19th century also saw many diplomatic conferences in Europe that set new principles and standards of diplomacy, some of which are still in practice.
Expansion
Until then, the United States was not visible in the scene of international power politics. But the US had its diplomatic presence in different countries and was slowly enlarging its diplomatic presence. Around the same time, Japan in Asia and Brazil in South America were diplomatically active. By the 1870s, Japan sent its missions abroad while China refused to take part in the new diplomacy until it was militarily compelled to accept representatives in Peking from Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Prussia and Japan, although Chinese diplomatic tradition had a long history dating back to the dawn of civilisation. By the end of the 19th century, international diplomacy had become mature and had expanded all over the world.
International diplomacy witnessed a new and innovative approach in the 20th century. However, the first half of the 20th century saw the breakdown of international diplomacy that gave rise to two devastating world wars causing untold miseries in human civilisation. World War I began in 1914 and ended in 1919 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The war brought about a key change in the perception of the rulers as both victors and vanquished alike realised the need to devise a permanent mechanism to avoid future wars and settle all disputes peacefully through the use of diplomacy. This led to the creation of the League of Nations in 1919. But the League of Nations failed to prevent another war, and the world witnessed the outbreak of World War II (1939-1945). The devastation caused by the war gave another step towards more effective diplomacy in the international arena to avoid another World War. This realisation gave birth to the United Nations (UN), giving a new momentum to international diplomacy.
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